Flowers in Israel

according to “the Land of Israel”,chapter XXI, a journal of Travels in Palestine (1865) by Reverend Henry Baker Tristram * (1822 – 1906) … Read More

Eshkol National Park An oasis in the Negev Desert… Read More

The myrtle, Myrtus communis, is a shrub with evergreen leaves. The small white flowers are produced in the middle of the summer. The fruit is a small, black berry, resembling a blueberry and is edible but seldom eaten. The entire plant contains a fragrant oil. In Hebrew myrtle is called “hadas” and is one of the Four Species (arba’ah minim–ארבעת המינים) used in a special ceremony during the Jewish holiday of Sukkot (Feast of Tabernacles).

The first reference of the Myrtle in the Bible is in Nehemiah 8:15 in regard to the celebration of the Feast of Tabernacles:” . . . and they should proclaim this word and spread it throughout their towns and in Jerusalem. ‘Go out into the hill country and bring back branches from olive and wild olive trees, and from myrtles, palms and shade trees, to make booths as it is written.’

Cercis siliquastrum or “Judas Tree” is a type of redbud (fabaceae).
In early spring it is covered with a profusion of magenta pink flowers, which appear before the leaves.
The name “Judas Tree” came from the story of Judas Iscariot, the betrayer of Christ. It is said when he hung himself on one of these trees, the flowers turned from white to red because of his blood and the tree’s shame.

Ground pine, is a plant whose numbers have been severely reduced by changes to downland farming.

It looks at first sight like a tiny pine tree with a reddish four-cornered, hairy and viscid stem and grows to no more than 20 cm high, often branching from the base, making it easily overlooked. The leaves are up to 4 cm long, divided into three linear lobes which, when crushed, smell of pine needles. Its yellow flowers are like those of a miniature red-dotted snapdragon, in ones or twos up the stem and amongst leaves. Ground pine sheds its shiny black seeds close to the parent plant; remarkably, they can remain alive in the soil for up to 50 years. It was a plant well known to Tudor herbalists who probably exploited the resins contained within the leaves.The herb was formerly regarded almost as a specific in gouty and rheumatic affections, the young tops, dried and reduced to powder being employed. It formed an ingredient of the once famous gout remedy, Portland Powder. It was composed of the leaves of Ajuga Chamaepitys, which have a slightly terebinthinate, not unpleasant smell, and a rough taste, which properties are imparted to diluted alcohol, the leaves and tops of Erythraea Centaureum and Teucrium Chamaedrys, and the roots of Gentiana lutea and Aristolochia rotunda, all in equal parts.

Classical Latin has but one word (thus or tus) for all sorts of incense. Libanus, for frankincense, occurs only in the Vulgate.The Romans knew the “ground frankincense” (Pliny). or “ground pine” (Ajuga chamaepitys) as Tus terrae (Tus = frankincense; terrae =ground [Latin], although they called some plant, from its smelling like frankincense, Libanotis, and a kind of Thasian wine, also from its fragrance, Libanios.

Some say it is the most erotic flower, look to the lower part: a red ring, a light tongue and red lips!

Cyclamen, a genus of plants of the Primrose family, received its name kyklaminos meaning “circle” from its bulblike, underground stem. In most of the 20 known species, the flower scape coils downward after pollination. The ripe seed are then shed near the soil. The flowers are produced in whorls of 3-10, each flower on a slender stem 3-12 cm tall, with five united petals; the petals are usually reflexed back 90° to 180° erect above the flower, and vary from white through pink to red-purple, most commonly pale pink.

Cyclamen persicum is the parent species of the cultivated Cyclamen; they are tuberous plants native to the eastern Mediterranean -southern Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan and Israel. They grow in the wild as well in Algeria, Tunisia and on the Greek islands of Rhodes, Karpathos and Crete. It is thought that the cyclamen in North Africa and the Greek islands were introduced by monks or other religious orders for they are often found near old monasteries or cemeteries.In Hebrew it is named Rakefet, רקפת after the Syrian name Rakafta.The popular name for Cyclamen in Arabic is Sabounat al- Raa’i, סבונת אל-רעי, i.e. soap of the shepherd, testifying that the herdsmen recognized the foaming qualities of Saponin in it and used the leaves or tuber as soap in emergency time. Cyclamen contains a toxic saponin, cyclamin, in the tuberous rhizomes. The extreme acridity would be fair warning not to eat it.

Many English farmers called Cyclamen “stag-truffle” or “sowbread” and in the herbals cyclamen were referred to as sow-bread or Panis porcinus; wild pigs were supposedly fond of the tubers and digging them in the ground with their snouts.

Pedanius Dioscorides, an ancient Greek physician, pharmacologist and botanist who practised in Rome at the times of Nero in the first century CE. He is famous for writing a five volume book De Materia Medica, not just for the history of herbal science; it also gives us knowledge of the herbs and remedies used by the Greeks, Romans, and other cultures of antiquity. Among the “ciclamino” were put many medical uses: women who wished to end their pregnancies would walk over flowering cyclamens in the belief that this could induce miscarriages, it counteracts any kind of poison, especially sea air, it is good against serpent’s bite and make a man drunk if it was put in his wine. Ointments made with oil or honey were believed good to treat cataracts and weak eyesight, cleanse the skin to cure blemishes and boils, treat sunburn, and make hair grow.Dioscorides suggested its use also as a purgative, antitoxin, skin cleanser, and labor-inducer. When used as a purgative, juice from the tuberous root-stock was applied externally, either over the bowels and bladder region or on the anus. Dioscorides also mentioned its use as an aphrodisiac and that the seeds removed sorcery. Theophrastus (372-287 B.C.) noted that the cyclamen was a symbol of lust because of its use as an aphrodisiac.And no doubt of the folkloric custom preparing real aphrodisiac of the cyclamen; the powder has no sense of smell, colour and taste, and a woman, who wanted to arouse her man, put it in the soup without showing anything, and went quickly to bed.Cyclamen tubers were baked and made into cakes and eaten as a love potion.Powdered cyclamen tubers were and still are used for poisoning fish; if you scatter it on water the fish will float to be able to breathe so that they are an easy catch. The Roman author Pliny also spoke of cyclamens used as a toxic fish bait.

In Israel you will find Cyclamen galore in many places, but special on the Cyclamen Hill (Rakafot Hill) near Kibbutz Galed. From Eliakim Junction on the Fureidis-Yokneam road (near Yokneam), take Route 672 southward to Kibbutz Galed. In 1950 a pine forest was planted and a few years later Cyclamen started to grow, flowering end January- begin February.

And then you can sing the popular Israeli song:CYCLAMENLyrics: Levin KipnisMusic: FolkSinger:Esther OfarimUnder the rock grows like a wonderA very cute CyclamenThe shining sun kisses itAnd crowns her with a pink crownCyclamen, the bird whistlesLook at me for a minuteBeautiful Cyclamen hiding under the rockHiding from every thingBat sheva went out for a walkThe morning was brightShe collected every flower and plantHer mouth full with a songBat sheva singsCyclamen speeds uppeeps out for a momentWho is looking at me here?That’s CyclamenBat sheva gets closer slowlyBat sheva gets off the rockA beautiful Cyclamen on her chestA bird whistles the wind folndles

And this song comes to an end.

******

RAKEFETMitachat lasela tzomachat lefeleRakefet nechmedet me’odVeshemesh mazheret nosheket oteretOteret la keter varodRakefet rakefet tzipor metzaftzefetHatzitzi ach rega elaiRakefet nehederet basela nisteretNisteret minefesh kol chaiYatza’a im haruach rakefet lasuachHaya az haboker bahirKol tzemach kol perach osefet baderechUfia ach zemer vashirBat sheva mezameretrakefet memaheretMetzitza ach rega echadMi zot hanishkefet achen zo rakefetBat sheva nigheshet le’atMisela vageva yoredet Bat shevaRakefet chen al hechazeTzipor metzaftzefet veruach lotefet

Vesof kvar lazemer haze.

Job 30:4 – Who pluck mallow by the bushes, And whose food is the root of the broom shrub.

Althea derives from the Greek word ‘altho’ to cure’ and the family name Malvaceae is one of the many species of flowering plants that contains the genus Malva, the mallow genus, and its relatives, including the marshmallow plant (Althaea officinalis).

The two species that are common in Israel are the Alcea setosa and the Alcea dissecta. The Alcea setosa is widespread in the Mediterranean mountainous open areas. Rare in Judea and Samaria, found quite in the Carmel and Lower-Galilee. In Upper Galilee it is replaced by the Alcea dissecta. This plant is specific near the Banias and the Dan and widespread in the Dan Valley and Upper- Galilee and it stands out alongside the road in spring and the beginning of summer.Althaea is a perennial plant growing to 150-200cm tall, with broad, rounded, palmate lobed leaves with 3-7 lobes and numerous pink flowers, on the erect central stem. The corolla is 15 to 20 cm in diameter.

The Sages wrote about the Altheae in general.Hippocrates (c.460BCE-c.377BCE) Greek physician and father of modern medicine, described the value of althea in the treatment of wounds.Theophrastus (c. 372-286 BC), the successor of Aristotle in the Peripatetic school, reported that it was taken in sweet wine for coughs.Dioscorides (c.40-c.90CE), another Greek physician a few centuries later, prescribed a vinegar infusion as a cure for toothaches and recommended a preparation of the seeds to soothe insect stings.Horace (65-8 BC), Roman poet and satirist, mentions it in reference to his own diet, which he describes as very simple: “Me pascunt olivae, me cichorea, me malvae” (“As for me, olives, endives, and mallows provide sustenance.”)Pliny (23-79) said: ‘Whosoever shall take a spoonful of the Mallows shall that day be free from all diseases that may come to him.’It is cultivated extensively in Europe for medicinal purposes, acting as a demulcent. In 812, Charlemagne enjoined its culture in France.

James Burnett, Lord Monboddo (1714 -1799), a Scottish judge, scholar of language evolution and philosopher, describes his translation of an ancient epigram that demonstrates malva was planted upon the graves of the ancients, stemming from the belief that the dead could feed on such perfect plants.

Frank Lloyd Wright designed and built a house between 1919 and 1921 in LA called Hollyhock House for oil heiress Aline Barnsdall.The house takes its name from the favorite flower of Aline Barnsdall. At her request, hollyhocks were incorporated into the decorative program of the house, and stylized representations of the flower may be found on the roofline, walls, columns planters and furniture.
And not to forget Marshmallow crème, the real marshmallows, made the traditional way, with powdered marshmallow root, egg whites, cane sugar, and vanilla extract. The traditional recipe of the confection used an extract from the mucilaginous root of the marshmallow plant, the Althaea officinalis, instead of gelatin. The root extract (halawa extract) is also used to make a Middle Eastern snack called halva (חלבה), very popular in Israel and can be found in almost every grocery store.The Arabic word halwa is a generic term for candy, or “sweetmeat” in literal translation and comes from the Arabic word halwa; the root word is hilwa meaning sweet. The root word is also the basis for the Arabic words for “good” (hala’) and “very sweet” (hali). Alkanna tinctoria is also known as orchanet, dyer’s bugloss, Spanish bugloss or bugloss of Languedoc. Its name comes from the Spanish word alcana, from Arabic al-hena, after Henna (Lawsonia inermis lythraceae) . The flowers are hermaphrodite (have both male and female organs)
Alkanna tuberculata naturally grows in maritime sands, on the shores of the the eastern part of the Mediterranean. It has a dark red root of blackish appearance externally but inside showing a blue-red meat, surrounding a whitish core.

A red dye is obtained from the roots called Alkannin and used today as a food colouring. It is used by pharmacists as well as in perfumes and to stain wood or marble. It can make wood look like rosewood or mahogany. The dye is also used in thermometers and as a litmus to test for acids and alkalines.

Alkannin is used in folk medicine where it is claimed to possess, among other properties, wound healing and anti-inflammatory activity. Alkannin is a pharmaceutical substance with a wide spectrum of biological properties.

The flora of Israel is mentioned many times in the Bible. The Bible is full with illustrations, indicating examples from agriculture and natural vegetation.
King Solomon in Eccelestiastes (2,5-6) described his wealth, he said: “I made me gardens and orchards, and planted trees in them of all kind of fruits. I made myself pools of water to water therewith the wood that bringeth forth trees.” And in the Song of Songs (2:1–2) the shepherd lover sings to his bride: “I am the rose of Sharon (most probably the Sharon tulip – Tulipa agenensis subsp. sharonensis), and the lily of the valleys (probably Narcissus tazetta). As the lily among thorns (Lilium candidum), so is my love among the daughters.”

The Song of Songs is a poem about love. The main speakers are a man, King Solomon, who describes himself as a shepherd, a man whose job is to look after sheep and the woman, whom he loves, is called ‘the Shulamite’.Solomon describes the start of spring (Song of Songs 2:10–13):My beloved spoke and said to me, “Arise, my darling,my beautiful one, come with me.See! The winter is past; the rains are over and gone.Flowers appear on the earth; the season of singing has come,the cooing of doves is heard in our land.

The fig tree forms its early fruit; the blossoming vines spread their fragrance. Arise, come, my darling; my beautiful one, come with me.”

H.B.Tristram (Nat. Hist. of the Bible, 1882) says: ” Certainly if, in the wondrous richness of bloom which characterizes the land of Israel in spring, any one plant can claim pre-eminence, it is the anemone, the most natural flower for our Lord to pluck and seize upon as an illustration, whether walking in the fields or sitting on the hill-side.”

Israel has probably been one of the most travelled lands since antiquity. Traversed by travelers, explorers, conquerors, crusaders and pilgrims, many native Israeli plants have been transferred to Europe and introduced into cultivation. Examples are Anemone coronaria, Ranunculus asiaticus, Cyclamen persicum, Hyacinthus orientalis, Narcissus tazetta, Lilium candidum and several tulips. Those are some of the species that were relatively easy to domesticate.

Anemones, tulips, Asiatic ranunculi, and poppies, in that order, which spans the whole of spring, are the red showy flowers or the floral glories of Israel.
M. Zohary believes these to be the spring flowers (Heb. nitzanim) of Song of Songs 2:12.” These flowers have a similar appearance in shape and colour and from a distance they may easily be confused.

Anemone (Anemone coronaria) is traditionally identified as the `lily of the field’. It is a widespread herbaceous perennial plant growing to 20-40 cm tall (rarely to 60 cm), with a basal rosette of a few leaves, the leaves with three leaflets, each leaflet deeply lobed. The flowers are borne singly on a tall stem with a whorl of small leaves just below the flower; the flower is 3-8 cm diameter, with 5-8 red, white or blue petal-like sepals. Recent research in Israel has shown that there is a genetic basis for this variation which explains for the dominance of a certain colour in a particular region. Around Jerusalem, for instance, the red shape is more frequent than the blue, while on the basalt slopes north the Sea of Galilee the hillside are speckled with the blue and white flowers.
The petals of the Anemone are usually nectariferous near the base, and in Ranunculus there is a flap of tissue in this position, a presence of reflexed sepals. The Asiatic Ranunculus, or buttercup (Ranunculus asiaticus), is also red-flowered.
Tulipa agenensis, Tulipa Montana (mountain tulip) and Tulipa Sharonensis.Song of Solomon 2:2 Like a lily among thorns is my darling among the maidens. A tulip is a flower with 5 petals, all intertwining, and without which, it would not make up a complete flower.Its narrow, grey-green leaves are usually crinkled along the edges.

Corn poppies (Papaver rhoeas, Papaver subpiriforme etc.) are annuals inhabiting disturbed ground and their seeds are in capsules, unlike the anemone and ranunculus, which are perennials and have their seeds in separate nutlets. Pheasant’s eye (Adonis cupaniana, A. aleppica) are also annuals with scarlet flowers, but with nutlets like the anemone.

The winter solstice (from Latin sol (sun) + stet (standing) is the date of the shortest day, when the sun appears to be at its most southerly. Both hunter-gatherers and farming communities relied on stored food to see them through the long winters, for many cultures the return of the longer days meant that the plenty of spring was approaching and a reason to celebrate.

The ancients were certainly aware of the movement of the sun. The Jewish Festival of Lights, Hanukkah (also Chanukkah), is also linked to the solstice, being held on the 25th Kislev, three days before the new moon closest to the solstice. The celebration commemorates the victory of the Maccabees over Antiochus Epiphanes and the rededication of the Temple.

The ancient Egyptians celebrated the rebirth of Osiris on December 21st with his symbolic burial and rebirth as an infant at midnight, the priests bringing the image of a child out of his ‘burial chamber’. The ancient Egyptians considered the palm tree to symbolize resurrection. They decorated their homes with its branches during the winter solstice.The ancient Greeks’ celebration followed the Egyptian model, with somewhat more in the way of bloodshed, a man being torn apart by women, representing the end of the harvest god Dionysos, with the promise of rebirth through the offspring of one of the women. The human sacrifice was later replaced with a goat, the women becoming mourners.Rome originally had several celebrations near this time, including the Saturnalia on 17th December. By the year 50 BCE, the festival ran until the 23rd. This was supplemented by many other feasts, including the birth of gods and demigods such as Mithras, Apollo and Hercules. These different feasts were later merged by the Emperor Aurelian into the Birthday of the Unconquered Sun (Dies Natalis Invicti Solis), celebrated on 25th December.

The Druids held rituals in their sacred groves and performed fertility rites involving mistletoe, Germanic tribes burned their Yule logs and decorated their homes with evergreens, and Scandanavians lit bonfires and held vigils.. Trees were viewed as symbolizing eternal life. The trees joined holly, mistletoe, the wassail bowl and the Yule log as symbols of the season. All predated Christianity. Many of these rituals are now associated with the ‘Christian’ festival we know as Christmas, indeed the date was chosen by the Roman church when they ‘Christianised’ the festival of Saturnalia.Saturnalia was the feast at which the Romans commemorated the dedication of the temple of the god Saturn, which took place on 17 December. Over the years, it expanded to a whole week, up to 23 December. The Romans often cut down evergreens and decorated their “trees with bits of metal and replicas of their god, Bacchus [a fertility god]. They also placed 12 candles on the tree in honor of their sun god” and decorated them to pay homage to Saturn, the god of farming. The Romans also practiced many traditions similar to Christmas; though the “Christmas tree” itself is a later development in the celebration of Christmas. In the Roman calendar the Winter Solstice fell in this period; in imperial times that event was celebrated in honour of Sol Invictus and put on 25 December by emperor Aurelian in 274, so after the Saturnalia.

There is one theory that says that the Aleppo pine is the original Christmas tree. The Aleppo pine, also known as Jerusalem pine, is native to the Mediterranean region. It is a small to medium-size tree, reaching 15-25 m tall. The leaves (‘needles’) are in pairs, very slender, mostly 6-10 cm long, The cones are narrow conic, 5-10 cm long and 2-3 cm broad at the base when closed, green at first, ripening glossy red-brown when 24 months old.

Merry ChristmasVrolijk kerstfeest

חג שמח

Ammi visnaga is a member of the Apiaceae or Umbelliferae, a family of usually aromatic plants with hollow stems, including parsley, carrot, and other relatives.
Ammi visnaga is a bitter, aromatic plant that is native to the Mediterranean area of North Africa and the Middle East. The plant grows erect to a height of about 1 meter by 0.5 meters wide and bears wispy leaves, the lower leaves 1-2-pinnate; upper leaves 2-3(4)-pinnate; all leaves with linear to filiform (thread-like) segments. This plant has clusters of small white scented hermaphrodite flowers, pollinated by Insects. and tiny fruits, which are picked and dried and used in herbal medicines.This plant is self fertile, tastes like thyme, and the leaves are chewed for their flavor in some countries.

This herb is one of the oldest herbs cultivated by the ancient Egyptians. The seeds are harvested in late summer before they have fully ripened and are dried for later use.

They contain a fatty oil that includes the substance ‘khellin’ (khellin, has vasodilator and bronchodilator properties). The seeds of the Ammi visgana are diuretic and lithotripic and used in the treatment of asthma, angina, coronary arteriosclerosis and kidney stones. This traditional Arab remedy was mentioned in the Ebers papyrus (1500 BCE). In 700 BC the Indian physician Charaka writes Charaka Samhita which details over 350 herbal medicines including Ammi visnaga.

Many scholars identify the jujube as the biblical atad, mentioned in the “Parable of the trees” in the book of Judges (Judges 9:15) known as Jotham’s Parable (Hebrew: משל יותם), an allegorical story against the monarchy in recent years told on Tu B’shvat as a children’s tale. Jotham, the youngest son of Gideon and the only one left living besides Abimelech, escapes to Mount Gerizim, near Shechem and tells what has come to be known as Jotham’s Parable (Judges 9: 7-21), the story of “the trees who went forth to anoint a king over them.” The trees first appeal to the olive, ‘Be our king’ the latter refuses to be a king, asking, ‘Should I give up my oil, by which both gods and men are honored, to hold sway over the trees?’ The fig also refused, saying, “Shall I leave my sweetness and my good fruit to wave over the trees?” Likewise the vine: “Shall I leave my new wine which cheers God and men to wave over you?” Finally all the trees said to the Jujube (Ziziphus spina-christi, Hebrew: Atad, אטד), ‘Come and be our king’ and the Jujube, with nothing to offer but its shadow, agrees to reign, but not without making a thinly-veiled threat: ‘If you really want to anoint me king over you, come and take refuge in my shade; but if not, then let fire come out of the Jujube (Atad) and consume the cedars of Lebanon!’ Judg. 9:15).

The olive, fig, vine and jujube in the parable stand for different kinds of people. The good fruits are symbols of good works. The jujube is the type of someone who does not do good uses or only does them for show and for selfish gain. The olive, fig and vine are modest and wish only to serve, but selfishness loves to rule and to be served. Fire coming out of the jujube means the burning of selfish desires. The cedar which the fire destroys stands for rational understanding. Someone who is proud or angry cannot be wise.

Yotam, the teller of the parable, is using the metaphor of the the atad to ridicule his older brother, Abimelech, who has unjustly annointed himself king, surrounded himself with yesmen and murdered all his brothers save for Yotam.

The jujube tree is common in Samaria. It can grow very large, easily providing shade for these small trees. The wild jujube growing in Israel is apparently of Sudanian origin. It is a broad-crowned, spiny tree with intertwined branches that reach nearly to ground level. Its leaves are smooth and ovate. The yellowish fruits are round in shape. They are edible, not unusual tasty and it is very much the poor relative of the olive, fig and vine, mentioned in the parable. In the past jujube fruits were commonly sold in the marketplace. In the Arava Valley, the tree is usually evergreen, but in the north it is deciduous and loses its leaves in the cold winter. The jujube grows in wet desert habitats and in riverbeds with deep soil that can store water throughout the summer. In the region between Hatzeva and Jericho, jujube is the second most common tree, after the acacia.

Its wide spreading root-system is well-known for leaching all nourishments from the soil. A farmer who wants his orchard to succeed must first uproot every jujube in the area, small saplings as well as full-grown trees. Ziziphus spina-christi is one of several candidates for Jesus’ crown of thorns, hence its name: “They dressed Him up in purple, and after twisting a crown of thorns, they put it on Him” (Mark 15:17).

It is a land of wheat, and barley, and vines, and fig trees, and pomegranates; a land of olive oil, and [date] honey. Deuteronomy 8, 8.

The Ficus carica was cultivated for its fruit some 6500 years ago. It is a dioecious species with separate male and female trees, and a symbiotic pollinator wasp (Blastophaga psenes) that is propagated inside the fruits (syconia) of male trees called capri figs. Pollination of edible figs requires fig wasps to transport pollen from Capri fig flowers. The Ficus carica is native to the region between the Mediterranean and Black Seas. Evidently many ancient civilizations were aware of the fact that Ficus carica required pollination in order to produce edible, seed-bearing fruits, a process called caprification. Aristotle (384-322BCE) described fig wasps that came out of Capri figs and penetrated the unripe female fig fruits, thus fertilizing them.

Theophrastus of Eresos (371-287 BCE) was essentially the first botanical taxonomist and some 2,300 years ago he described in details on fig caprification. In order to prevent the abortion of their embryo cultivar figs, the farmers arranged that ripe wild figs were hung in orchards of the cultivars at embryo stage, or even went so far as to interplant the early, intermediate and late cultivars (you get three crops per annum in the Mediterranean) with the appropriate wild variety. They were aware of the galls which develop in the inedible or goat-fig and were aware of the insect which came out of the ripe fruit and entered the embryo fruit, allowing it to develop to an edible fig. The flower of a fig of course, is very unusual in that it is completely enclosed within the fig itself and never seen, male flowers at the top and female below. It isfertilised by a tiny wasp which leaves the ripe fig and enters the embryo fig via a minute hole at the top, which is hidden by overlapping scales. Each species of fig has developed a symbiosis with a different wasp over the last 100 million years.

Theophrastus of Eresos (371-287 BCE) was essentially the first botanical taxonomist and some 2,300 years ago he described in details on fig caprification. In order to prevent the abortion of their embryo cultivar figs, the farmers arranged that ripe wild figs were hung in orchards of the cultivars at embryo stage, or even went so far as to interplant the early, intermediate and late cultivars (you get three crops per annum in the Mediterranean) with the appropriate wild variety. They were aware of the galls which develop in the inedible or goat-fig and were aware of the insect which came out of the ripe fruit and entered the embryo fruit, allowing it to develop to an edible fig. The flower of a fig of course, is very unusual in that it is completely enclosed within the fig itself and never seen, male flowers at the top and female below. It is fertilised by a tiny wasp which leaves the ripe fig and enters the embryo fig via a minute hole at the top, which is hidden by overlapping scales. Each species of fig has developed a symbiosis with a different wasp over the last 100 million years.

The word for this tree is translated in many different ways. For example, the tree under which King Saul was buried (I Chronicles 10:12) is termed “the great tree” (NIV), “oak” (KJV), and “terebinth” (JND). Of those three terms terebinth is the more correct as one of the species of pistacia. The same tree is called “balsam and “mulberry”. Balsem may be used as a name because of a resin extracted from the tree. Several plants are referred to as balsam. Balsem, oak, mulberry and terebinth are not even superficially similar and are unrelated.

There are two species of “terebinth” in the Middle East, “the Atlantic pistacia” (Pistacia atlantica) and the “Palestine pistacia” (Pistacia palaestina; Hebrew: elah). The terebinth tree continues to be abundant in the Middle East, growing even in desert areas. The Atlantic Pistacia is the larger one and therefore assumed to be the one referred to in the Scriptures. The trees reach a very large size and can live up to one thousand years. The Atlantic Pistacia is the largest tree in Israel in recent history; a single tree can grow as much as 12 meters high, can yield up to 2 kilograms of resin (turpentine). The terebinth develops a very deep and extensive root system and therefore remains green even in years of drought. It often sprouts from the stump after being cut, as noted in Isaiah (6:13).Because of it’s large size and great age, pistacia trees were well-known landmarks and were used as memorials for the dead.

A new project to record all sites in which sacred or holy trees are found was begun in 1997 by Rotem. A holy tree is a tree or small group of trees adjacent to prayer or holy burial sites. These trees or groups of trees are usually very large and old and are often connected to the graves of sheikhs. It is estimated that there are approximately 1000 holy trees in Israel. The protection of these sites is important for the cultural heritage of Israel, for environmental protection and for ecological and historical research.

As often in the Scripture, great trees are associated with great men. Gideon was by a large pistacia when he was called by God (Judges 6:11). David faced Goliath in the Valley of the Pistacias (I Samuel 17:2) (elah in Hebrew). Absalom, great in his own eyes, his head was trapped in a large pistacia (II Samuel 18: 9).